By

Jeremiah J. Dugan

Langley High School

Introduction

Physically, Pittsburgh is situated in the Eastern United States, at the base of the Allegheny Mountains and at the conflux of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and the Ohio rivers. Physically, the city is home to approximately 350,000 residents. Physically the land surrounding the city has historically been blessed with resources enough to power the planet many times over. Volumes of books have been written about the physical environment of Pittsburgh, which I do not intend to reproduce here. I intend to describe the political environment of my city, which is just as impressive as the physical environment, through the guise of the Pittsburgh urban renewal project of the 1940’s and 50’s, known as the Renaissance.

The Renaissance still offers itself to the gods of academia to interpret its level of success or failure, but lends itself very well to the students of the Pittsburgh Public Schools and Langley High School to learn about their city and its government. It serves as a point of pride for Pittsburghers. It demonstrates the benefits of cooperation and collaboration. It covers all levels of government, from city to county to state to federal. It offers heroes in the forms of David Lawrence and Richard King Mellon and villains in the form of the smoke and the floods that will culminate in allowing the students to identify and assign meaning.

Overall the unit will work to confirm Tip O’Neil’s notion that, "All politics are local." Students will see how local public officials not only had to work with each other but with other branches and levels of government. It will show that deliberations and debates that take place in Washington, Harrisburg, and on Grant Street have influence and effect in the neighborhoods around the students.

Overall Goals

My unit seeks to have the students gain knowledge of their city’s governmental structure and function by learning about how the city rebuilt itself in the 1940’s and 50’s through the urban renewal project known as the Renaissance. The knowledge gained will piggy back earlier units on the federal and state government that showed the students how these levels of government operate and function. The students will understand how they can enact and influence the progress of their region and their community through their knowledge of the structure of government on all levels.

Specific Goals

Students will be able to identify and describe the function and structure of the Mayor of the City of Pittsburgh, the City Council of Pittsburgh, the Allegheny County Council, and the Allegheny County Executive. Additionally, students will be able to identify and describe the causes, solutions, effects, players, and strategies of the urban renewal project known as the Renaissance.

Description of the Unit

This unit will began by looking at Pittsburgh between 1900 to 1945; this will be done through examining photographs, reading newspaper accounts, and parts of the Pittsburgh Survey. The students will gain an insight into what it was like to live in Pittsburgh during that era and the conditions of the region. For our purposes, we will focus on the problems of smoke, floods, and the horrendous condition of the area around the Point; where Point State Park now stands.

The students will examine the conditions and factors surrounding each of the problems and how they adversely affected Pittsburgh. They will then begin to prepare solutions to each of the problems individually and in cooperative work groups. With some prodding and pushing the solutions to smoke and floods will match the solutions used during the original Renaissance (see example lesson 1.)

For the students to clean up the conditions that plagued the Point, the students will consider actual design proposals from the era and create their own proposals. Students will examine the area and brainstorm the following: what could be done with the area, what should be done with the area, and what they would like to see done with the area. Students will be asked to give a rough design and idea of their concept of the Point. They will then develop a position paper that will rationalize the decisions that they have made and present their ideas for the rest of the class to consider, debate, and vote upon. This will of course not lead us to the actual solution and creation of Point State Park, but it will give the students a valuable insight into how government operates and functions.

The students will present their proposals at simulated public meetings. Students will be randomly assigned to City Council, the Mayor, members of County Council, the County Executive, State Legislatures, and the Governor and be asked to simulate the process by which city and county government works and the powers and duties that each branch has. This will lead directly into the students learning about the structure and function of city and county government.

The local government structure used during the simulation will not match the government structure of the Renaissance era, but will be reflected of the current government structure. Reflecting the updated City Charter that was enacted in the 1970’s that altered the structure of city government. Also, County Government’s structure will not reflect 1940’s county government, since the county government changed from a three-commissioner form of government to a system that closely resembles the city government of two separate branches of legislative and executive. This difference will be explained as a side note to the overall unit.

The unit will then examine how the students’ results and process differed from the actual results and process. This will give the students a chance to evaluate themselves and how they performed in the simulation in respect to the people that actually held the political positions during the Renaissance era. In addition, they will be able to evaluate the Renaissance through their own experience and knowledge gained during the unit.

The unit will look at what I call the three main pillars of the Renaissance, smoke control, flood control, and the redevelopment of the Point. It was these points that played a role in the negative image Pittsburgh developed when it was dubbed, "Hell with its lid off." It is these three issues allow the students to examine the problems and the negative image of the city that were clearly evident in the resources they examine and have had clear results that are still in evidence today in Pittsburgh.

The Players

Many other cities both nationally and international attempted to take the Pittsburgh model of urban renewal and use it in their cities, but were unsuccessful. The reason was simple, none of the other cities had the framework of cooperation and powerful people willing to hold the it together through their collective power and will. The cooperation was both public and private, Republicans and Democrats. Those two men were Democratic Mayor, David Lawrence and Republican Chairman of the Allegheny Conference on Community Development, Richard King Mellon. If one of the men did not cooperate and put his weight behind a project, the project would fall apart; it was their power in different spheres of influence and their willingness to work together that allowed the Renaissance to occur.

Smoke

Smoke was the major problem faced by Pittsburgh and every resident. No one could escape its grasp; everyone was affected by smoke alike, from the Andrew Carnegies to Joe Steelworker. According to Michael P. Weber in his biography of David Lawrence, Pittsburgh received a third less sunlight than other parts of Allegheny County. This claim was anecdotally backed up during an interview on the smoke conditions of the 1940’s I conducted with a resident of the city during the era, " The mornings were so dark all year round from the soot. I think the mills caused it. Everything got so dirty; you couldn’t wear something white because it would get dirty. We probably should all have lung disease, but I don’t remember anyone getting sick from it. You couldn’t even open up your windows, because that black soot would come into your house. Although, it didn’t bother me I was in high school and didn’t care about anything. A lot of people used to complain about it."

The smoke was caused by the use of bituminous coal. Although many people attribute the smoke to the steel mills, this seems to be an unfair indictment. The mills were responsible for a fair share of the smoke; they were not the only culprits. The railroads that brought the mills their raw materials and then shipped out the steel also produced its fair share of smoke. But, the people in their homes also caused smoke, by using coal to heat their homes. It seems that everyone used coal, be it for business or their homes. The culminating effect caused the pervasive problem of smoke.

The residents of Pittsburgh did recognize that smoke was a problem, but why did it take so long to do something about it? Quite simply, Pittsburghers viewed smoke as prosperity. When there was smoke, the mills must be running, when their was not smoke, the mills must shut down. Although, I have found no tangible evidence or studies that verify this claim, logically it seems to on target. If the mills were not in operation, then the mills were not producing smoke, their would be less trains coming into and out of the city, and the workers would have less money to buy coal, all producing the effect of less smoke. From the residents’ perspective there was less smoke because the mills were not in operation.

Smoke Control

The issue of smoke control was not a new topic to Pittsburghers, although the issue of actual implementation and legislation with teeth was a new topic. For smoke control to take place, new alliances had to be made and arms twisted. The results of which were not only felt in smoke control, but in the altered political landscape of Pittsburgh.

It seems hard to imagine today why smoke control would be such a hard issue to tackle. But, the issue had many powerful enemies. The Pennsylvania Railroad was one such powerful enemy. The Pennsylvania Railroad relied on the use of bituminous coal to run their trains; any directed change from that fuel source would seriously eat into the company’s profit margin. It was the Pennsylvania Railroad that provided one of the major roadblocks to the passing of meaningful legislation.

No matter how much power and influence Mayor David Lawrence had, it would never amount to enough to overcome the Pennsylvania Railroad’s block; they were simply too powerful of an economic and lobbying force. It was in cases such as this that the true cooperative spirit that made the Renaissance a success, transparent. Richard King Mellon, according to Michael Weber, simply called the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad and told him, that if the Railroad did not drop its opposition to smoke control legislation, Mellon controlled business, which were substantial would find another railroad to use. Considering Mellon controlled a number of powerful and influential companies in Western Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Railroad had reason to take the threat seriously, they could not afford to call Mellon’s bluff and risk that it was not a bluff. The Railroad’s opposition to smoke control was shortly thereafter dropped. After which some of the most progressive smoke control legislation in the country if no the world was enacted. Fortunately, for Mellon his fight in the war over smoke control ended, but his partner Lawrence still had to battle with angry voters.

The other major obstacle to smoke control was the working poor of Pittsburgh or the core supporters of the Democratic Party. Lawrence knew that smoke control, if enacted would cost him votes, enough perhaps to cause him to lose re-election. Many of his supporters were the working poor of Pittsburgh, who did not have the economic resources to easily change the type of fuel they used to heat their homes. And as any good group of Americans, Pittsburghers vote with their pocketbooks. If smoke control was and heating costs rose, Lawrence would be blamed and punished at the ballot box. Just to make sure the voters remembered the forced change from coal, any challenger from inside his party or from the Republican Party would spend substantial time and money focusing the voters’ attention on that issue. Lawrence, as all great politicians have know, if he was going to antagonize a core group of supporters, he would simply need to develop another core if he hoped to win re-election.

Lawrence sought the support of the middle to upper class neighborhoods of Pittsburgh’s South Hills and East End. These neighborhoods had traditionally been beds of Republican support. But, as Lawrence perceived the threat to his re-election these neighborhoods’ support were increasingly courted and the strategy paid off its expected dividends, Lawrence’s closest re-election.

Political Effects and Ramifications

The results of Lawrence’s pandering to the voters of the South Hills and East End are still felt in elections today, these now Old Democratic strongholds in the East and South are not descendents of Roosevelt Democrats of the 1930’s, but are descendents of Lawrence Democrats of the 1950’s. Having worked on many campaigns beginning in 1990 I never realized the power that the Democrats held in this area until I worked on a Republican’s election campaign. In 1998, I worked for a Republican running for the Pennsylvania State House of Representatives who I felt was ideologically closer to what I view as a Democrat than the incumbent Democrat. I thought that this ideological difference with enough pre-election footwork would be enough to win the election. The day of the election I oversaw four different polling places in a South Hills neighborhood of Pittsburgh, confident of an upset. Almost every voter I spoke to about issues agreed with my candidate’s views and not the incumbent. Except for one issue, the voters told me that they would not vote for a Republican candidate. My candidate, the Republican, got trounced receiving less than ten percent of the vote. Why, did he lose? Less money, running against a long time incumbent, not enough name exposure? All of which are true, but it all comes down to one question in the South Hills neighborhoods, is the candidate a Democrat.

After the election, I spoke with a powerful lobbyist that I had previously worked campaigns with and I asked him what it would take to get the incumbent out of that district. He told me at least $100,000 would be needed for a Democrat to challenge the incumbent, and if a Republican wanted to credibly challenge they would have to raise nearly double that amount. The most ironic part of the whole situation is that the candidate I had worked against, Frank Gigllitoti did not finish his term in office because of a conviction on extortion. During the writing of this unit, current Democratic Pittsburgh City Councilman, Michael Diven won the spring primary in this South Hill’s district and had no declared Republican challengers for the fall’s general election.

This effect of creating Lawrence Democrats did not go unnoticed by the Mellon camp for they knew that to achieve their goals they would need a Democratic politician who would support their ideas as well. So, the business backing of the Republican Party allowed Lawrence to build these inroads by not actively supporting their party’s candidates in these neighborhoods. Which allowed the Democrats to build a dynasty in these areas that are still in place a half a century later.

The combination of R.K. Mellon’s and David Lawrence’s power and influence and the two’s willingness to cooperate became the model used for each of the reforms made during the era. If either one of these men were less powerful in their professional lives and less willing to cooperate with the other, the Renaissance would not have become the international model for urban renewal that it became.

Floods

If the smoke problem was the most pervasive problem, the floods were the most troublesome due to the geography of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh is a series of flood plains. If one would take a ride along Carson Street beginning at the little ice cream store at the edge of the South Side and drive west to the West End you would clearly note the existence of these plains. You would notice how at the beginning of your drive the slopes are right on top of you and there barely seems like enough room for your car and the one coming toward you, especially when only lit by your headlights. While the neighborhood of Greenfield on the other side of the river is one of these floodplains with plenty of functional land, then it all changes. About the time you see a field of dreams come out of no where (actually, it is the Pittsburgh Steelers and University of Pittsburgh Panther’s new football practice fields), the river gods seem to take from what is now Oakland and give to the Southside. A neighborhood and the former site of one of the largest steel mills in the nation erupt out of no where on your side of the river. While the step sloops on the other side no longer seem fit for neither man nor beast. And then the pattern repeats itself. Quite simply it is the geographic pattern that allowed floods to easily occur to the Pittsburgh area and discouraged businesses from making substantial development on or near the riverfronts.

But, as my students have so readily pointed out to me when asked what caused the floods, "Water!" True enough, but water did not cause the floods, too much water did. The floods usually occurred during the spring as a result of the thawing of the snow in the mountains. If Mother Nature allowed for a slow and gradual thaw, Pittsburgh would be sparred a flood. If Mother Nature thawed quickly, flooding would occur, then combined with spring showers the floods would be awful, such as was the case in the 1936 flood.

Floods were an annual and expected occurrence, but something that was tolerated, The St. Patrick’s Day Flood of 1936 changed that. According to Weber the flood killed 47, injured 2,800, left 67,500 homeless, and a damage bill of $50 million dollars. This event became the preverbal straw that broke the camel’s back and convinced many Pittsburghers that something had to be done to solve this problem. For not only did the floods cause damage to lives and property, it also stopped businesses from coming to Pittsburgh and was forcing other business out of the area.

Flood Control

Flood control presented the problem of having to not only maneuver through state and local legislative bodies, but through the United States Congress as well. The reason for the involvement of the federal government can become crystal clear if you simply pull out a map of the United States and trace your finger along the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers following their natural paths to Pittsburgh. Both rivers contributed to the flooding of Pittsburgh and both begin in bordering states, the Allegheny in New York and the Monongahela in West Virginia. For effective flood control, damns and reservoirs would have to be strategically placed along both rivers in all three states to prevent the flooding of Pittsburgh. Logic tells us that it would be right near impossible for a legislative body in Albany to want to pay for improvements on rivers in New York, when the only city to see substantial benefits would be in Pennsylvania. So the federal government’s legislative and financial powers would be needed to conquer the floods that hampered Pittsburgh’s growth.

Many of the measures had been passed for flood control in the late 1930’s in response to the St. Patrick’s Day Flood, but the Second World War stopped all implementation and funding. By the time the War ended, the United States Congress was no longer as willing to pay for the flood control projects they had approved several election cycles before. So, the Renaissance teams headed by Lawrence and Mellon would have lobby for the flood control appropriations bills in Washington. Both were successful in lobbying the Congressmen that they had influence over for the funding of the projects, although Lawrence had the "ace in the hole". The ground work for his successful lobbing was laid at the 1944 Democratic Convention when Lawrence worked behind the scenes to push for the adoption of Harry S. Truman as the vice-presidential nominee, a fact that Truman never forgot. Especially as Lawrence and the rest of the Renaissance contingent pushed for the funding they needed.

Problems at the Point

The area of land at the convergence of the Allegheny River, Monongahela River, and Ohio River is arguably the single most important piece of land in the interior of the United States. It was this strategic piece of land that triggered what some might call the first true world war, called the French and Indian War in the Americas and the Seven Years War in Europe. The British prevailed in the conflict and the French were never to return in force to the New World. Robert Alberts in his book, Shaping of the Point, says that if the French had won the war; Pittsburgh would have been their crown jewel in the New World, creating a New Paris. Where the art and architecture would be impressed on visitors as they entered at the Point in a truly grandiose fashion. Unfortunately, for the Point, the British won and it would take another two centuries for even a glimpse of the French’s dream at the Point to be realized.

The Point by World War II was an area that projected the city’s image to the rest of the nation; "hell with its lid cut off." Although this was the area that David Lawrence was born and raised in at the turn of century, it was not the same area.

Abandoned warehouses, railroad tracks, garbage, flood debris, and shanty houses littered the point. For Pittsburgh to change and move into the future they would have to bring a symbol with them, that symbol would be at the Point.

There were many proposals and ideas about what to do at the Point. Proposals varying from water marinas, to shopping centers, to a towering circular office / shopping complex that cars could drive up, to a state park. The biggest problem lay in what to build with the limitations from two bridges and the privately held land behind the bridges leading into Downtown that left the usable area to a minimum. Any successful proposal would have to take these factors into consideration. Luck granted the city the opportunity it needed when fires burned the remaining privately owned structures at the point. This development allowed the city to use its eminent domain powers to seize the area around the Point passed the bridges. With one major hurdle out of the way, the Renaissance team decided to tear down the bridges and build two new ones further back that would greatly increase the amount of usable land.

The final proposal that was accepted was for the creation of a state park. Two main concerns kept coming up from the few critics of the plan, first about how to handle the traffic changes, and would anyone even use the park. Although, valid concerns they did not seem too seriously hamper or slow down the project. That is because the political parties were not fighting over building the park or not, but which party could get the most credit for the building.

The formal opening of Point State Park was in 1974. At the ceremony Dr. Maurice K. Goddard, then Pennsylvania Secretary for the Department of Environmental Resources called the park a "springboard for the resurgence of Pittsburgh." The park was not only a physical victory of the success of the Renaissance, but served as a symbol of all of the projects that made the Renaissance an international a success.

This unit will be used as part of a ninth grade civics course as taught in the Pittsburgh Public Schools. The course provides the student with a basic overview of the federal, state, and local governments, as well as looking at economics and how the law affects the students.

The course begins by looking at the origins of our federal government. We look mostly British events and documents that were used and influenced American Government. The class then delves into Colonial American History and we look at the factors that helped shape our government structure. Moving unto an examination of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and various actions taken by the British to limit Colonial Americans rights. From there we examine the Constitution and the Bill of Rights and look closely at the three branches of government, their structure, duties, powers, and the development of each.

From there the course moves away from the structure and function of the government to the forces and factors that currently and continually shape the government. We then examine elections and the election cycle. Within this unit one of the main lessons learned is that the economy of the nation often shapes the elections process. From there we look at basic micro and macro economic terms theories and issues. Which then brings the class back into government structure and function, but then on a state and local level, which finishes the year.

This unit on Pittsburgh and County Government through the Renaissance will serve two purposes, one it fits within the curriculum. Two, at the end of the year the students’ attention levels are starting to fade, and by having them look at their city, county and state will hopefully help keep them involved. The theories, events, and simulations we will read about and discuss have tangible results that they can look at around them and see in their everyday lives. Hopefully, this connection will maintain their interest and peak a motivation in the students to learn about their city and their city’s history.

Example Lesson 1: How to Fix the Problems of Pittsburgh Exercise

Through this lesson the students will be able to identify and describe the problems facing Pittsburgh during the 1940’s and develop solutions to those problems.

Students will achieve social studies standards number one (students demonstrate an understanding of major events in the historical development of Pennsylvania), number four (students will examine problems faced by comminutes by using methods of inquiry), and number seven (students demonstrating their skills of communicating, negotiating and cooperating with others).

Students will also achieve the applied leaning standard number 1b (students troubleshot problems in need of repair and devise means of improvement).

The teacher will need the How to Fix the Problems worksheet (appendix A), use of books that contain pictures of the city between 1900 and 1945, books that contain pre-renaissance descriptions of the point, and if possible newspapers pre-1945 that describe the Point (see bibliography for reference sources).

Students will examine a series of documents that will overview the 1900 to 1940’s Pittsburgh independently. After which time the students will engage in a short discussion of the topic that was examined so the teacher can assess the students understanding and comprehension of the materials.

Students will then be asked to work independently on the How to Fix the Problems worksheet. In essence the worksheet asks the student to identify the problems Pittsburgh was facing in the order they deem most important or pressing. The student will then devise solutions to the problems, and anticipate possible questions or oppositions to their solutions.

The students will then participate in cooperative work groups where as a group they will complete a How to Fix the Problems worksheet. Students will have to discuss their individual solutions and arrive at a group consensus.

At the conclusion of the lesson, each group will give a brief oral presentation on their solutions. Other groups will be encouraged to ask questions of the group. The final question, the students will deal with on the worksheet is: what branches and levels of government would be needed to enact their solutions, will serve as a conclusion and bridge to the section of the unit on local government.

Students will complete the worksheet for themselves and in small groups. In addition students will use the experience of devising solutions to the problems to compare to the actual situation during a future lesson where they will compose a comparative essay at the conclusion of the unit.

Students will work cooperatively to analyze and evaluate proposals for development at the Point. Students will be able to create a position paper that supports and describes the criteria that they used in deciding on their proposal choice as they attempt to persuade their classmates (who will serve as various local politicians) on their decisions.

Students will achieve social studies standards number one (students demonstrate an understanding of major events in the historical development of Pennsylvania), number three (students will understand the operation of government), number four (students will examine problems faced by comminutes by using methods of inquiry), and number seven (students demonstrating their skills of communicating, negotiating and cooperating with others).

Students will also achieve applied leaning standards1b (students troubleshot problems in need of repair and devise means of improvement), 2a (students will make an oral presentation of project with expertise in the subject area).

Students will need their proposals for Point redevelopment and have their pre-assigned roles for in local and state government.

In a previous lesson students will create and devise proposals for redevelopment of the Point based upon proposals made in the 1940’s and their own original ideas. In addition, students were named to the various political positions on the city, county, and state levels of government.

During this lesson period students will develop presentations on their proposal that will include a poser display and a written report. The poster will convey to the audience an overall visual goal or concept of what the Point will be. The written report will offer a description, analysis, and a rational for the group’s proposal.

After the project is complete the students will give an oral presentation, as if they were presenting to a board or commission. Each student in the audience will be given a student-developed rubric to evaluate the group’s presentation and proposal.

At the conclusion of the proposals the class will break-up into groups depending on the level of government they were assigned to discuss their opinions and to vote on a final proposal. If each group votes differently, we shall discuss how this would affect the actual process, and how the situation could be overcome and consensus reached.

Students will be evaluated on their poster, their written report, their oral presentation, and their evaluations of other students’ proposals.

Students will be able in interpret and evaluate the portion of the City of Pittsburgh Charter that grants the executive branch its power and be able to identify and describe the powers and duties of that branch.

Students will achieve social studies standard number three (students will understand the development and operations of the governmental systems of Pittsburgh).

Mayor of Pittsburgh Worksheet (Appendix A)

This lesson will be used as one of the transitional lessons from the Renaissance to local government. The homework from the night before was writing to the prompt, "If I was the Mayor of Pittsburgh I would…" The students would have been expected to write one full page to answer or respond to the prompt.

The class would begin with a discussion on the students’ homework. We would look at the writing as a brainstorming session and write brief descriptions of what the students would do on the board, which would then be referenced later in the class. After enough responses and discussion had occurred the teacher would proceed with the Mayor of Pittsburgh worksheet.

The worksheet would be completed as an interactive read along. This would be done because the document the worksheet was created from is a legal document that might confuse and / or intimate the students. Selected students will read small sections of the worksheet and then the class would stop to answer and discuss the questions at the end of each section.

At the conclusion of the worksheet the students will be asked to look at their brainstorming ideas. They will then be asked to look through their worksheet to find the part of the City Charter that would allow the Mayor to perform what the students would do if they were mayor. The answers would be written on the board. A brief discussion would then be held on what would happen if the mayor performed duties that were on the board, but did not have the power to do it based upon the charter. The students will answer the final question of the worksheet for homework.

Students will be evaluated on the writing to a prompt homework, completed student worksheets with the final question answered as an essay for homework.

Appendix A: Problems Worksheet

You are a resident of Pittsburgh in 1945 and you too are concerned about the problems facing your city. But what can be done about them?

1. What is the biggest problem facing 1945 Pittsburgh?
2. Explain why you think this is the biggest problem?
3. What are three ways we can fix the problem?
4. What are some reasons people might resist your solutions?
5. What is another problem facing 1945 Pittsburgh?
6. Explain why you think this is a problem?
7. What are three ways we can fix the problem?
8. What are some reasons people might resist your solutions?
9. What people (types, positions, political parties, etc) might be needed to fix the problems that you have mentioned above?

Appendix B: Mayor’s Worksheet

MAYOR of PITTSBURGH

Directions: Read the following text and answer the questions in complete sentences.

1. To provide leadership for the advancement of the City and the achievement of the goals set forth in the Preamble of this Charter
2. To execute and enforce the provisions of this Charter, the ordinances and resolutions of the City and the laws of this Commonwealth.
3. To inform Council at least once a year concerning the finances and general conditions of the City;

7. Why do you think the mayor is expected to provide "leadership for the advancement of the City"?

8. What does article (c) say the mayor has to tell council about?
   

IV. 

4. To provide Council with information concerning the administration and conditions of the City as requested by Council;
5. To call meetings with council when necessary;
6. To submit proposed legislation to any member of Council for introduction;

14. Citing three pieces of evidence from the above text, do you think the mayor is an influential part of city government?

 

Leland D. Baldwin, Pittsburgh: The Story of a City, 1750-1865 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995)

Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh, (State University of New York, 1984)

Barbara Ferman, Challenging the Growth Machine: Neighborhood Politics in Chicago and Pittsburgh, (University Press of Kansas, 1996)

Elvgren and Favorini, Steel City, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992)

Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, Editors, Pittsburgh Surveyed: Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996)

Janet Wilson, Editor, Pittsburgh Revealed: Photographs Since 1850, (Carnegie Museum of Art, 1997)

League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania, Key to the Keystone State: Pennsylvania, (The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1989)

League of Women Voters of Greater Pittsburgh, Know your town: Pittsburgh How Your City Works, (Day and Night Press, 1995)

Laurie Graham, Singing the City, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998)

Harold Livesay, Andrew Carnegie, (Little Brown and Company, 1975)

Roy Lubove, Twentieth Century Pittsburgh Vol. I, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995)

Franklin Toker, Pittsburgh: An Urban Portrait, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986)

Weber and Stearns, The Spensers of Amberson Avenue, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983)

Michael Weber, Don’t Call Me Boss, (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988)

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http://www.post-gazette.com/default.asp 2 June 2000

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http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/council/ 29 May 2000.

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http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/council/ 29 May 2000.

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http://www.county.allegheny.pa.us/ 29 May 2000.

"Welcome to the Commonwealth of PENNSYLVANIA Home Page." Available:
http://www.state.pa.us/ 29 May 2000.

"Governor Tom Ridge and the First Family." Available:
http://www.state.pa.us/PA_Exec/Governor/overview.html 29 May 2000

"Pennsylvania State Government." Available:
http://www.state.pa.us/govstate.html 29 May 2000.

"Pennsylvania General Assembly." Available:
http://www.legis.state.pa.us/ 29 May 2000